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Diverse systems of thought in Hinduism

Hindu philosophy encompasses the philosophies, world views and teachings[i] of Hinduism that emerged in Ancient India. These include six systems (shad-darśana) – Sankhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa and Vedanta.[2] In Indian tradition, the word used for philosophy is Darshana (Viewpoint or perspective), from the Sanskrit root drish (to come across, to feel).[3]

These are also chosen the Astika (theistic) philosophical traditions and are those that accept the Vedas as an authoritative, important source of knowledge.[four] [annotation i] [note ii] Ancient and medieval India was as well the source of philosophies that share philosophical concepts just rejected the Vedas, and these take been called nāstika (heterodox or not-orthodox) Indian philosophies.[ii] [4] Nāstika Indian philosophies include Buddhism, Jainism, Chārvāka, Ājīvika, and others.[7]

Western scholars take debated the relationship and differences inside āstika philosophies and with nāstika philosophies, starting with the writings of Indologists and Orientalists of the 18th and 19th centuries, which were themselves derived from limited availability of Indian literature and medieval doxographies.[ii] The diverse sibling traditions included in Hindu philosophies are diverse, and they are united by shared history and concepts, same textual resources, like ontological and soteriological focus, and cosmology.[eight] [9] While Buddhism and Jainism are considered distinct philosophies and religions, some heterodox (nāstika) traditions such as Cārvāka are often considered as distinct schools within Hindu philosophy because the word Hindu is likewise an exonym and historically, the term has also been used as a geographical and cultural identifier for people living in the Indian subcontinent.[x] [xi] [12] [thirteen]

Hindu philosophy also includes several sub-schools of theistic philosophies that integrate ideas from two or more of the six orthodox philosophies, such as the realism of the Nyāya, the naturalism of the Vaiśeṣika, the dualism of the Sāṅkhya, the non-dualism and knowledge of Self every bit essential to liberation of Advaita, the self-discipline of Yoga and the asceticism and elements of theistic ideas.[14] [15] [16] Examples of such schools include Pāśupata Śaiva, Śaiva siddhānta, Pratyabhijña, Raseśvara and Vaiṣṇava.[14] [15] Some sub-schools share Tantric ideas with those found in some Buddhist traditions.[17] The ideas of these sub-schools are found in the Puranas and Āgamas.[18] [nineteen] [xx]

Each school of Hindu philosophy has extensive epistemological literature chosen pramāṇaśāstras,[21] [22] as well as theories on metaphysics, axiology, and other topics.[23]

Classifications [edit]

In the history of India, the six orthodox schools had emerged before the commencement of the Common Era, and some schools emerged possibly even before the Buddha.[24] Some scholars have questioned whether the orthodox and heterodox schools classification is sufficient or accurate, given the multifariousness and evolution of views within each major schoolhouse of Indian philosophy, with some sub-schools combining heterodox and orthodox views.[25]

Since ancient times, Indian philosophy has been categorized into āstika and nāstika schools of idea.[26] The orthodox schools of Indian philosophy have been called ṣaḍdarśana ("six systems"). This schema was created betwixt the twelfth and 16th centuries by Vedantins.[27] : 2–3 It was then adopted past the early Western Indologists, and pervades modern understandings of Indian philosophy.[27] : iv–5

Āstika [edit]

At that place are six āstika (orthodox) schools of thought.[note iii] Each is called a darśana, and each darśana accepts the Vedas every bit authority. Each astika darsana too accepts the premise that Atman (eternal Self) exists.[4] [28] The āstika schools of philosophy are:

  1. Samkhya – An strongly dualist theoretical exposition of consciousness and affair. Agnostic with respect to God or the gods.
  2. Yoga – A monotheistic school which emerged from Sankhya and emphasizes practical use of Sankhya theory: meditation, contemplation and liberation.
  3. Nyāya or logic – The schoolhouse of epistemology which explores sources of noesis.
  4. Vaiśeṣika – An empiricist school of atomism.
  5. Mīmāṃsā – An anti-ascetic and anti-mysticist schoolhouse of orthopraxy. This school deals with the correct estimation of the verses in Vedas.
  6. Vedānta – The last segment of noesis in the Vedas, or jñānakāṇḍa (section of knowledge). Vedanta is as well referred as Uttara-Mimamsa. Vedānta came to be the dominant electric current of Hinduism in the mail-medieval period.

Nāstika [edit]

Schools that do non take the authority of the Vedas are nāstika philosophies, of which 4 nāstika (heterodox) schools are prominent:[7]

  1. Cārvāka, a materialism school that accustomed the existence of free will.[29] [thirty]
  2. Ājīvika, a materialism school that denied the existence of free will.[31] [32]
  3. Buddhism, a philosophy that denies existence of ātman (Self)[33] and is based on the teachings and enlightenment of Gautama Buddha.
  4. Jainism, a philosophy that accepts the being of the ātman (Self), and is based on the teachings and enlightenment of xx-iv teachers known as tirthankaras, with Rishabha as the first and Mahavira as the twenty-fourth.[34]

Other schools [edit]

Likewise the major orthodox and not-orthodox schools, there have existed syncretic sub-schools that take combined ideas and introduced new ones of their own. The medieval scholar Madhavacharya, indentified past some every bit Vidyaranya, in his book 'Sarva-Darsana-Sangraha', includes the following, along with Buddhism[35] and Jainism,[36] as sub-schools of Hindu philosophy:

  • Pashupata Shaivism, adult by Nakulisa[37]
  • Shaiva Siddhanta, the theistic Sankhya school[38] [39]
  • Pratyabhijña, the recognitive school of Kashmir Shaivism, Trika[40] [41]
  • Raseśvara, a Shaiva school that advocated the use of mercury to reach immortality[42]
  • The Ramanuja school[43]
  • The Pūrṇaprājña (Madhvācārya) school[44]
  • The Pāṇinīya[45]

The higher up sub-schools introduced their own ideas while adopting concepts from orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy such equally realism of the Nyāya, naturalism of Vaiśeṣika, monism and cognition of Self (Atman) every bit essential to liberation of Advaita, self-discipline of Yoga, asceticism and elements of theistic ideas.[14] Some sub-schools share Tantric ideas with those found in some Buddhist traditions.[17]

Characteristics [edit]

School Sankhya Yoga Nyāya Vaiśeṣika Mīmāṃsā Advaita Vedanta[Due north ane] Vishishtadvaita Vedanta[N 1] Dvaita Vedanta[N ane] Achintya Bheda Abheda Pashupata Shaiva Siddhanta Kashmir Shaivism Raseśvara Pāṇini Darśana Akshar-Purushottam Darśana
Classification rationalism,[46] [47] dualism, dualism, spiritual practice realism,[48] logic, analytic philosophy naturalism,[49] atomism exegesis, philology, ritualism non-dualism, pantheism qualified non-dualism, panentheism dualism, theology simultaneous non-dualism and dualism theism, spiritual practice Monotheism theistic non-dualism, idealism alchemy linguistics, philosophy of language qualified not-dualism, panentheism
Philosophers Kapila, Iśvarakṛṣṇa, Vācaspati Miśra, Guṇaratna more.. Patañjali, Yajnavalkya, Vyasa[Due north two] Aksapada Gautama, Vātsyāyana, Udayana, Jayanta Bhatta more.. Kanada, Praśastapāda, Śridhara's Nyāyakandalī more.. Jaimini, Kumārila Bhaṭṭa, Prabhākara more.. Gaudapada, Adi Shankara, Madhusudana Saraswati, Vidyaranya more than.. Yamunacharya, Ramanuja more than.. Madhvacharya, Jayatirtha, Vyasatirtha, Raghavendra Swami Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, 6 Goswamis of Vrindavana, Visvanatha Chakravarti, Krishnadasa Kaviraja, Baladeva Vidyabhushana, Rupa Goswami, more.. Haradattacharya, Lakulish Tirumular, Meikandadevar, Appayya Dikshita, Sadyojyoti, Aghorasiva Vasugupta, Abhinavagupta, Jayaratha Govinda Bhagavat, Sarvajña Rāmeśvara Pāṇini, Bhartṛhari, Kātyāyana Bhagwan Swaminarayan, Shastriji Maharaj, Bhadreshdas Swami
Texts Samkhyapravachana Sutra, Samkhyakarika, Sāṁkhya tattvakaumudī more.. Yoga Sutras, Yoga Yajnavalkya, Samkhya pravacana bhasya Nyāya Sūtras, Nyāya Bhāṣya, Nyāya Vārttika more.. Vaiśeṣika Sūtra, Padārtha dharma saṁgraha, Daśapadārtha śāstra more.. Purva Mimamsa Sutras, Mimamsasutra bhāshyam more than.. Brahma Sutras, Prasthanatrayi, Avadhuta Gita, Ashtavakra Gita, Pañcadaśī more.. Siddhitrayam, Sri Bhasya, Vedartha Sangraha AnuVyakhana, Brahma Sutra Bahshya, Sarva Shāstrārtha Sangraha, Tattva prakashika, Nyaya Sudha, Nyayamruta, Tarka Tandava, DwaitaDyumani Bhagavata Purana, Bhagavad Gita, Sat Sandarbhas, Govinda Bhashya, Chaitanya Charitamrita, Gaṇakārikā, Pañchārtha bhāshyadipikā, Rāśikara bhāshya Sivagamas, Tirumurais, Meikanda Sastras Shiva Sutras of Vasugupta, Tantraloka Rasārṇava, Rasahṛidaya, Raseśvara siddhānta Vākyapadīya, Mahabhashya, Vārttikakāra Swaminarayan Bhashyam, Swaminarayan-Siddhanta-Sudha
Concepts Originated Purusha, Prakṛti, Guṇa, Satkāryavāda Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayama, Pratyahara, Dhāraṇā, Dhyana, Samadhi Pratyakṣa, Anumāna, Upamāna, Anyathakyati vada, Niḥśreyasa more than.. Padārtha, Dravya, Sāmānya, Viśeṣa, Samavāya, Paramāṇu Apauruṣeyātva, Arthāpatti, Anuapalabdhi, Satahprāmāṇya vāda Jivanmukta, Mahāvākyas, Sādhana Chatuṣṭaya, iii orders of reality, Vivartavada Hita, Antarvyāpi, Bahuvyāpi more.. Prapacha, Mukti-yogyas, Nitya-samsarins, Tamo-yogyas Sambandha, Abhidheya, Prayojana (Human relationship, Process, Ultimate Goal) Pashupati, viii pentads Charya, Mantramārga, Rodha Śakti Citi, Mala, Upaya, Anuttara, Aham, Svatantrya Pārada, three modes of mercury Sphoṭa, Ashtadhyayi Akshar Purushottam Upasana
  1. ^ a b c Advaita, Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita take evolved from an older Vedanta school and all of them accept Upanishads and Brahma Sutras as standard texts.
  2. ^ Vyasa wrote a commentary on the Yoga Sutras chosen Samkhyapravacanabhasya.(Radhankrishnan, Indian Philosophy, London, George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1971 edition, Volume II, p. 344.)

Overview [edit]

Epistemology [edit]

Epistemology is called pramāṇa.[50] Information technology has been a key, much debated field of study in Hinduism since ancient times. Pramāṇa is a hindu theory of noesis and discusses the valid means past which human beings tin gain accurate knowledge.[50] The focus of pramāṇa is how correct knowledge can be acquired, how ane knows, how 1 doesn't, and to what extent cognition pertinent about someone or something tin can exist acquired.[21]

Ancient and medieval Hindu texts place six pramāṇas as correct means of accurate knowledge and truths:

  1. Pratyakṣa – Direct perception
  2. Anumāṇa – Inference or indirect perception
  3. Upamāṇa – Comparison and analogy
  4. Arthāpatti – Postulation, derivation from circumstances
  5. Anupalabdi – Non-perception, absence of proof
  6. Shabda – Word, testimony of past or nowadays reliable experts[51]

Each of these are further categorized in terms of conditionality, completeness, confidence and possibility of error, past the different schools. The schools vary on how many of these vi are valid paths of knowledge.[22] For example, the Cārvāka nāstika philosophy holds that simply one (perception) is an epistemically reliable means of knowledge,[52] the Samkhya school holds that three are (perception, inference and testimony),[52] while the Mīmāṃsā and Advaita schools hold that all six are epistemically useful and reliable means to noesis.[52] [53]

Sāmkhya [edit]

Samkhya is the oldest of the orthodox philosophical systems in Hinduism,[54] with origins in the 1st millennium BCE.[55] It is a rationalist school of Indian philosophy,[46] and had a strong influence on other schools of Indian philosophies.[56] Sāmkhya is an enumerationist philosophy whose epistemology accepted three of half-dozen pramāṇas as the only reliable means of gaining knowledge. These were pratyakṣa (perception), anumāṇa (inference) and sabda (Āptavacana, word/testimony of reliable sources).[57] [52]

Samkhya school espouses dualism between witness-consciousness and 'nature' (mind, perception, thing).[58] It regards the universe equally consisting of ii realities: Puruṣa (witness-consciousness) and prakriti ('nature'). Jiva (a living existence) is that country in which puruṣa is bonded to prakriti in some course.[59] This fusion, state the Samkhya scholars, led to the emergence of buddhi (awareness, intellect) and ahankara (individualized ego consciousness, "I-maker"). The universe is described past this school as one created past Purusa-Prakriti entities infused with diverse permutations and combinations of variously enumerated elements, senses, feelings, activity and mind.[59]

Samkhya philosophy includes a theory of gunas (qualities, innate tendencies, psyche).[60] Guna, it states, are of three types: Sattva existence good, empathetic, illuminating, positive, and constructive; Rajas guna is one of action, chaotic, passion, impulsive, potentially adept or bad; and Tamas being the quality of darkness, ignorance, destructive, lethargic, negative. Everything, all life forms and human beings, state Samkhya scholars, have these three gunas, but in different proportions.[61] The interplay of these gunas defines the graphic symbol of someone or something, of nature and determines the progress of life.[62] [63] Samkhya theorises a pluralism of Selfs (Jeevatmas) who possess consciousness.[64] Samkhya has historically been theistic or non-theistic, and there has been debate nigh its specific view on God.[65] [66] [67] [68]

The Samkhya karika, one of the fundamental texts of this school of Hindu philosophy, opens by stating its goal to exist "iii[69] kinds of human suffering" and means to prevent them.[seventy] The text then presents a distillation of its theories on epistemology, metaphysics, axiology and soteriology. For example, it states,

From the triad of suffering, arises this inquiry into the means of preventing it.
That is useless – if you say so, I say: No, considering suffering is non absolute and terminal. – Poesy ane

The Guṇas (qualities) respectively consist in pleasure, pain and dullness, are adapted to manifestation, activity and restraint; mutually domineer, residual on each other, produce each other, consort together, and are reciprocally nowadays. – Verse 12
Goodness is considered to exist alleviating and enlightening; foulness, urgent and persisting; darkness, heavy and enveloping. Similar a lamp, they cooperate for a purpose by wedlock of contraries. – Poesy 13

There is a full general cause, which is diffuse. It operates by means of the three qualities, past mixture, by modification; for dissimilar objects are diversified past influence of the several qualities respectively. – Verse 16
Since the assemblage of perceivable objects is for utilize (past man); Since the converse of that which has the three qualities with other properties must be (in human); Since there must be superintendence (within man); Since there must exist some entity that enjoys (within man); Since at that place is a tendency to brainchild (in human), therefore soul is. – Poesy 17

—Samkhya karika, [70] [71]

The soteriology in Samkhya aims at the realization of Puruṣa equally distinct from Prakriti; this noesis of the Self is held to cease transmigration and lead to absolute freedom (kaivalya).[72]

Yoga [edit]

In Indian philosophy, Yoga is, among other things, the name of one of the six āstika philosophical schools.[73] The Yoga philosophical organisation aligns closely with the dualist premises of the Samkhya school.[74] [75] The Yoga school accepts Samkhya psychology and metaphysics, but is considered theistic considering it accepts the concept of personal god (Ishvara), unlike Samkhya.[76] [77] [78] The epistemology of the Yoga schoolhouse, like the Sāmkhya schoolhouse, relies on three of half-dozen prāmaṇas as the means of gaining reliable knowledge:[52] pratyakṣa (perception), anumāṇa (inference) and śabda (āptavacana, discussion/testimony of reliable sources).[53] [52]

The universe is conceptualized as a duality in Yoga school: puruṣa (witness-consciousness) and prakṛti (mind, perception, matter); nonetheless, the Yoga school discusses this concept more than generically as "seer, experiencer" and "seen, experienced" than the Samkhya schoolhouse.[79]

A central text of the Yoga school is the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. Patanjali may have been, as Max Müller explains, "the author or representative of the Yoga-philosophy without being necessarily the author of the Sutras."[80] Hindu philosophy recognizes many types of Yoga, such as rāja yoga, jñāna yoga,[81] karma yoga, bhakti yoga, tantra yoga, mantra yoga, laya yoga, and hatha yoga.[82]

The Yoga schoolhouse builds on the Samkhya schoolhouse theory that jñāna (knowledge) is a sufficient means to moksha. It suggests that systematic techniques/practice (personal experimentation) combined with Samkhya'due south approach to cognition is the path to moksha.[74] Yoga shares several central ideas with Advaita Vedanta, with the difference that Yoga is a form of experimental mysticism while Advaita Vedanta is a form of monistic personalism.[83] [84] [85] Like Advaita Vedanta, the Yoga school of Hindu philosophy holds that liberation/freedom in this life is achievable, and that this occurs when an individual fully understands and realizes the equivalence of Atman (Self) and Brahman.[86] [87]

Vaiśeṣika [edit]

The Vaiśeṣika philosophy is a naturalist school.[49] It is a form of atomism in natural philosophy.[88] It postulates that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to paramāṇu (atoms), and that 1's experiences are derived from the interplay of substance (a function of atoms, their number and their spatial arrangements), quality, activity, commonness, particularity and inherence.[89] Knowledge and liberation are achievable by complete understanding of the world of experience, according to Vaiśeṣika schoolhouse.[89] The Vaiśeṣika darśana is credited to Kaṇāda Kaśyapa from the 2nd half of the first millennium BCE.[89] [ninety] The foundational text, the Vaiśeṣika Sūtra, opens as follows:

Dharma is that from which results the accomplishment of Exaltation and of the Supreme Good. The authoritativeness of the Veda arises from its beingness an exposition of dharma. The Supreme Good results from knowledge, produced from a particular dharma, of the essence of the Predicables, Substance, Attribute, Action, Genus, Species and Combination, by ways of their resemblances and differences.

—Vaiśeṣika Sūtra 1.ane.1–one.1.four, [91]

The Vaiśeṣika school is related to the Nyāya school just features differences in its epistemology, metaphysics and ontology.[92] The epistemology of the Vaiśeṣika schoolhouse, similar Buddhism, accustomed just two means to cognition as reliable – perception and inference.[53] [93] The Vaiśeṣika school and Buddhism both consider their respective scriptures as indisputable and valid ways to knowledge, the deviation being that the scriptures held to be a valid and reliable source by Vaiśeṣikas were the Vedas.[53] [94]

Vaiśeṣika metaphysical premises are founded on a grade of atomism, that reality is equanimous of four substances (earth, h2o, air, and fire). Each of these four are of 2 types:[88] atomic (paramāṇu) and blended. An cantlet is, according to Vaiśeṣika scholars, that which is indestructible (anitya), indivisible, and has a special kind of dimension, called "small" (aṇu). A composite, in this philosophy, is defined to be anything which is divisible into atoms. Whatever human beings perceive is blended, while atoms are invisible.[88] The Vaiśeṣikas stated that size, form, truths and everything that human being beings experience as a whole is a role of atoms, their number and their spatial arrangements, their guṇa (quality), karma (activity), sāmānya (commonness), viśeṣa (particularity) and amavāya (inherence, inseparable connection of everything).[89] [95]

Nyāya [edit]

The Nyāya school is a realist āstika philosophy.[96] [97] The school's nigh pregnant contributions to Indian philosophy were its systematic development of the theory of logic, methodology, and its treatises on epistemology.[98] [99] The foundational text of the Nyāya schoolhouse is the Nyāya Sūtras of the offset millennium BCE. The text is credited to Aksapada Gautama and its composition is variously dated between the sixth and second centuries BCE.[100] [90]

Nyāya epistemology accepts four out of half-dozen prāmaṇas as reliable means of gaining knowledge – pratyakṣa (perception), anumāṇa (inference), upamāṇa (comparison and illustration) and śabda (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts).[52] [101] [51]

In its metaphysics, the Nyāya school is closer to the Vaiśeṣika school than the others.[96] It holds that human suffering results from mistakes/defects produced past activity under wrong knowledge (notions and ignorance).[102] Moksha (liberation), it states, is gained through right noesis. This premise led Nyāya to concern itself with epistemology, that is, the reliable ways to gain correct knowledge and to remove incorrect notions. Imitation cognition is not only ignorance to Naiyayikas; information technology includes delusion. Correct cognition is discovering and overcoming one's delusions, and understanding the true nature of the soul, self and reality.[103] The Nyāya Sūtras begin:

Perception, Inference, Comparison and Word – these are the ways of right noesis.
Perception is that knowledge which arises from the contact of a sense with its object and which is determinate, unnameable and non-erratic.
Inference is noesis which is preceded past perception, and is of iii kinds: a priori, a posteriori, and normally seen.
Comparison is the knowledge of a matter through its similarity to another thing previously well known.
Word is the instructive assertion of a reliable person.
It [knowledge] is of two kinds: that which is seen, and that which is not seen.
Soul, body, senses, objects of senses, intellect, mind, activity, fault, transmigration, fruit, suffering and release – are the objects of correct knowledge.

—Nyāya Sūtras 1.i.3–1.one.nine, [104]

Mīmāṃsā [edit]

The Mīmāṃsā school emphasized hermeneutics and exegesis.[105] [106] It is a course of philosophical realism.[107] Key texts of the Mīmāṃsā school are the Purva Mimamsa Sutras of Jaimini.[108] [109] The classical Mīmāṃsā school is sometimes referred to every bit pūrvamīmāṃsā or Karmamīmāṃsā in reference to the kickoff function of the Vedas.[108]

The Mīmāṃsā schoolhouse has several sub-schools defined by epistemology. The Prābhākara subschool of Mīmāṃsā accepted v ways to gaining knowledge equally epistimetically reliable: pratyakṣa (perception), anumāṇa (inference), upamāṇa (comparison and analogy), arthāpatti (postulation, derivation from circumstances), and śabda (discussion, testimony of past or present reliable experts).[101] [51] The Kumārila Bhaṭṭa sub-schoolhouse of Mīmāṃsā added a sixth way of knowing to its canon of reliable epistemology: anupalabdi (not-perception, negative/cognitive proof).[52]

The metaphysics of the Mīmāṃsā school consists of both atheistic and theistic doctrines, and the schoolhouse showed little interest in systematic test of the existence of God. Rather, it held that the Cocky (Atma) is an eternal, omnipresent, inherently agile spiritual essence, so focussed on the epistemology and metaphysics of dharma.[108] [110] [111] To them, dharma meant rituals and duties, not devas (gods), because devas existed only in name.[108] The Mīmāṃsākas held that the Vedas are "eternal authorless infallible", that Vedic vidhi (injunctions) and mantras in rituals are prescriptive karya (actions), and that the rituals are of master importance and merit. They considered the Upanishads and other texts related to self-knowledge and spirituality to be of secondary importance, a philosophical view that the Vedanta school disagreed with.[105] [108]

Mīmāṃsā gave ascension to the written report of philology and the philosophy of language.[112] While their deep analysis of language and linguistics influenced other schools,[113] their views were not shared past others. Mīmāṃsākas considered the purpose and power of language was to clearly prescribe the proper, right and correct. In contrast, Vedantins extended the scope and value of linguistic communication equally a tool to also depict, develop and derive.[108] Mīmāṃsākas considered orderly, law-driven, procedural life as the central purpose and noblest necessity of dharma and guild, and divine (theistic) sustenance means to that finish. The Mimamsa school was influential and foundational to the Vedanta school, with the difference that Mīmāṃsā developed and emphasized karmakāṇḍa (the portion of the śruti which relates to formalism acts and sacrificial rites, the early parts of the Vedas), while the Vedanta school adult and emphasized jñānakāṇḍa (the portion of the Vedas which relates to knowledge of monism, the latter parts of the Vedas).[105]

Vedānta [edit]

The Vedānta school built upon the teachings of the Upanishads and Brahma Sutras from the first millennium BCE[90] [114] and is the most developed[ commendation needed ] and all-time-known of the Hindu schools. The epistemology of the Vedantins included, depending on the sub-school, 5 or half dozen methods every bit proper and reliable ways of gaining any course of knowledge:[94] pratyakṣa (perception), anumāṇa (inference), upamāṇa (comparison and analogy), arthāpatti (postulation, derivation from circumstances), anupalabdi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof) and śabda (word, testimony of by or present reliable experts).[53] [52] [51] All of these accept been further categorized by each sub-school of Vedanta in terms of conditionality, completeness, confidence and possibility of error.[94]

The emergence of the Vedanta school represented a period in which a more knowledge-centered agreement began to emerge, focusing on jnana (knowledge) driven aspects of the Vedic religion and the Upanishads. These included metaphysical concepts such every bit ātman and Brahman, and an emphasis on meditation, self-subject area, cocky-knowledge and abstract spirituality, rather than ritualism. The Upanishads were variously interpreted by aboriginal- and medieval-era Vedanta scholars. Consequently, the Vedanta separated into many sub-schools, ranging from theistic dualism to non-theistic monism, each interpreting the texts in its own style and producing its ain series of sub-commentaries.[115] [116]

Advaita [edit]

Advaita literally means "non two, sole, unity". It is a sub-school of Vedanta, and asserts spiritual and universal non-dualism.[117] [118] Its metaphysics is a course of accented monism, that is all ultimate reality is interconnected oneness.[119] [120] This is the oldest and most widely acknowledged Vedantic school. The foundational texts of this schoolhouse are the Brahma Sutras and the early Upanishads from the 1st millennium BCE.[119] Its first great consolidator was the eighth century scholar Adi Shankara, who continued the line of thought of the Upanishadic teachers, and that of his teacher'south teacher Gaudapada. He wrote extensive commentaries on the major Vedantic scriptures and is celebrated as i of the major Hindu philosophers from whose doctrines the main currents of modernistic Indian thought are derived.[121]

According to this school of Vedanta, all reality is Brahman, and in that location exists nothing whatsoever which is not Brahman.[122] Its metaphysics includes the concept of māyā and ātman. Māyā connotes "that which exists, but is constantly changing and thus is spiritually unreal".[123] The empirical reality is considered as always changing and therefore "transitory, incomplete, misleading and not what it appears to exist".[124] [125] [126] The concept of ātman is of one Atman, with the light of Atman reflected within each person as jivatman. Advaita Vedantins assert that ātman is aforementioned equally Brahman, and this Brahman is reflected within each human existence and all life, all living beings are spiritually interconnected, and in that location is oneness in all of beingness.[127] [128] They hold that dualities and misunderstanding of māyā as the spiritual reality that matters is caused past ignorance, and are the cause of sorrow, suffering. Jīvanmukti (liberation during life) can be achieved through Self-knowledge, the agreement that ātman within is same every bit ātman in another person and all of Brahman – the eternal, unchanging, entirety of cosmic principles and truthful reality.[129] [128]

Viśiṣṭādvaita [edit]

Ramanuja (c. 1037–1137) was the foremost proponent of the philosophy of Viśiṣṭādvaita or qualified non-dualism. Viśiṣṭādvaita advocated the concept of a Supreme Being with essential qualities or attributes. Viśiṣṭādvaitins argued against the Advaitin formulation of Brahman as an impersonal empty oneness. They saw Brahman as an eternal oneness, but as well as the source of all creation, which was omnipresent and actively involved in existence. To them the sense of subject field-object perception was illusory and a sign of ignorance. Notwithstanding, the individual'due south sense of self was non a complete illusion since it was derived from the universal beingness that is Brahman.[130] Ramanuja saw Vishnu as a personification of Brahman.

Dvaita [edit]

Dvaita refers to a theistic sub-school in Vedanta tradition of Hindu philosophy.[131] [132] Also called as Tattvavāda and Bimbapratibimbavāda, the Dvaita sub-school was founded past the 13th-century scholar Madhvacharya.[131] The Dvaita Vedanta schoolhouse believes that God (Vishnu, Paramatman) and the individual Selfs (Atman) (jīvātman) exist equally independent realities, and these are distinct.[133] [134]

Dvaita Vedanta is a dualistic interpretation of the Vedas, espouses dualism by theorizing the existence of two split up realities.[131] The start and the just independent reality, states the Dvaita school, is that of Vishnu or Brahman.[131] Vishnu is the Paramatman, in a manner similar to monotheistic God in other major religions.[135] The distinguishing factor of Dvaita philosophy, as opposed to monistic Advaita Vedanta, is that God takes on a personal role and is seen as a real eternal entity that governs and controls the universe.[136] Similar Vishishtadvaita Vedanta subschool, Dvaita philosophy also embraced Vaishnavism, with the metaphysical concept of Brahman in the Vedas identified with Vishnu and the one and only Supreme Being.[137] [138] Notwithstanding, unlike Vishishtadvaita which envisions ultimate qualified nondualism, the dualism of Dvaita was permanent.[134] [133]

Salvation, in Dvaita, is doable only through the grace of God Vishnu.[131] [139] [140]

Dvaitādvaita (Bhedabheda) [edit]

Dvaitādvaita was proposed by Nimbarka, a 13th-century Vaishnava Philosopher from the Andhra region. According to this philosophy at that place are three categories of existence: Brahman, Self, and affair. Self and thing are different from Brahman in that they have attributes and capacities dissimilar from Brahman. Brahman exists independently, while Self and thing are dependent. Thus Self and thing have an existence that is separate withal dependent. Farther, Brahman is a controller, the Self is the enjoyer, and matter the thing enjoyed. Also, the highest object of worship is Krishna and his espoused Radha, attended by thousands of gopis; of the Vrindavan; and devotion consists in self-surrender.

Śuddhādvaita [edit]

Śuddhādvaita is the "purely non-dual" philosophy propounded by Vallabha Acharya (1479–1531). The founding philosopher was also the guru of the Vallabhā sampradāya ("tradition of Vallabh") or Puṣṭimārga, a Vaishnava tradition focused on the worship of Krishna. Vallabhacharya enunciates that Brahman has created the world without connection with whatsoever external bureau such as Māyā (which itself is His ability) and manifests Himself through the earth.[141] That is why Shuddhadvaita is known as 'Unmodified transformation' or 'Avikṛta Pariṇāmavāda'. Brahman or Ishvara desired to go many, and he became the multitude of private Selfs and the world. The Jagat or Maya is not false or illusionary, the physical fabric earth is. Vallabha recognises Brahman as the whole and the individual as a 'part' (simply devoid of bliss) like sparks and fire.[142]

Acintya Bheda Abheda [edit]

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1534), stated that the Self or energy of God is both distinct and non-singled-out from God, whom he identified as Krishna, Govinda, and that this, although unthinkable, may exist experienced through a process of loving devotion (bhakti). He followed the Dvaita concept of Madhvacharya.[143] [144] [145] This philosophy of "inconceivable oneness and difference".

Cārvāka [edit]

The Cārvāka schoolhouse is one of the nāstika or "heterodox" philosophies .[146] [12] [147] It rejects supernaturalism, emphasizes materialism and philosophical skepticism, holding empiricism, perception and provisional inference as the proper source of knowledge[148] [149] Cārvāka is an atheistic school of thought.[150] It holds that there is neither afterlife nor rebirth, all being is mere combination of atoms and substances, feelings and listen are an epiphenomenon, and free will exists.[29] [30]

Bṛhaspati is sometimes referred to as the founder of Cārvāka (as well called Lokayata) philosophy. Much of the main literature of Carvaka, the Barhaspatya sutras (ca. 600 BCE), nevertheless, are missing or lost.[150] [151] Its theories and evolution has been compiled from celebrated secondary literature such as those found in the shastras, sutras and the Indian epic verse as well as from the texts of Buddhism and from Jain literature.[150] [152] [153] The Tattvôpaplava-siṁha by the skeptic philosopher Jayarāśi Bhaṭṭa has been considered by many scholars to be an unorthodox Cārvāka text.[154]

Ane of the widely studied principles of Cārvāka philosophy was its rejection of inference as a means to establish valid, universal knowledge, and metaphysical truths.[155] In other words, the Cārvāka epistemology states that whenever one infers a truth from a set of observations or truths, one must admit doubt; inferred knowledge is conditional.[156]

Shaivism [edit]

Early history of Shaivism is difficult to determine.[157] However, the Śvetāśvatara Upanishad (400 – 200 BCE)[158] is considered to be the earliest textual exposition of a systematic philosophy of Shaivism.[159] Shaivism is represented by diverse philosophical schools, including non-dualist (abheda), dualist (bheda), and non-dualist-with-dualist ( bhedābheda ) perspectives. Vidyaranya in his works mentions three major schools of Shaiva thought—Pashupata Shaivism, Shaiva Siddhanta and Pratyabhijña (Kashmir Shaivism).[160]

Pāśupata Shaivism [edit]

Pāśupata Shaivism (Pāśupata, "of Paśupati") is the oldest of the major Shaiva schools.[161] The philosophy of Pashupata sect was systematized past Lakulish in the 2nd century CE. Paśu in Paśupati refers to the effect (or created world), the word designates that which is dependent on something ulterior. Whereas, Pati means the cause (or principium), the word designates the Lord, who is the cause of the universe, the pati, or the ruler.[162] Pashupatas disapproved of Vaishnava theology, known for its doctrine servitude of Selfs to the Supreme Beingness, on the grounds that dependence upon anything could not be the ways of abeyance of pain and other desired ends. They recognised that those depending upon another and longing for independence volition non be emancipated considering they still depend upon something other than themselves. According to Pāśupatas, Self possesses the attributes of the Supreme Deity when it becomes liberated from the 'germ of every pain'.[163]

Pāśupatas divided the created world into the insentient and the sentient. The insentient was the unconscious and thus dependent on the sentient or conscious. The insentient was further divided into effects and causes. The effects were of 10 kinds, the earth, four elements and their qualities, colour etc. The causes were of thirteen kinds, the five organs of noesis, the five organs of activity, the three internal organs, intellect, the ego principle and the cognising principle. These insentient causes were held responsible for the illusive identification of Cocky with non-Self. Conservancy in Pāśupata involved the union of the Self with God through the intellect.[164]

Shaiva Siddhanta [edit]

Considered normative Tantric Shaivism, Shaiva Siddhanta[165] [166] provides the normative rites, cosmology and theological categories of Tantric Shaivism.[167] Being a dualistic philosophy, the goal of Shaiva Siddhanta is to become an ontologically singled-out Shiva (through Shiva's grace).[168] This tradition later merged with the Tamil Saiva movement and expression of concepts of Shaiva Siddhanta can exist seen in the bhakti poesy of the Nayanars.[169]

Kashmir Shaivism [edit]

Kashmir Shaivism arose during the eighth[170] or ninth century CE[171] in Kashmir and made significant strides, both philosophical and theological, until the cease of the twelfth century CE.[172] It is categorised by various scholars as monistic[173] idealism (accented idealism, theistic monism, realistic idealism,[174] transcendental physicalism or concrete monism[174]). It is a school of Śaivism consisting of Trika and its philosophical joint Pratyabhijña.[175]

Even though, both Kashmir Shaivism and Advaita Vedanta are non-dual philosophies which requite primacy to Universal Consciousness (Chit or Brahman),[176] in Kashmir Shavisim, as opposed to Advaita, all things are a manifestation of this Consciousness.[177] This implies that from the indicate of view of Kashmir Shavisim, the astounding globe (Śakti) is existent, and it exists and has its existence in Consciousness (Chit).[178] Whereas, Advaita holds that Brahman is the reality (pure consciousness) and information technology is inactive (niṣkriya) and the phenomenal world is an appearance (māyā).[179] The objective of human being life, according to Kashmir Shaivism, is to merge in Shiva or Universal Consciousness, or to realize one's already existing identity with Shiva, by means of wisdom, yoga and grace.[180]

See also [edit]

  • Āstika and nāstika
  • Buddhism and Hinduism
  • Buddhist philosophy
  • Hindu idealism
  • Pramana
  • Indian philosophy
  • Kashmir Shaivism
  • Metaphilosophy
  • Dharma
  • Asrama
  • Vedas
  • Origin of language

Notes [edit]

  1. ^ 1000 Chadha (2015), in The Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Philosophy of Religion, states that Vedas were knowledge source but interpreted differently by unlike schools of Hindu philosophy: "The sacred texts of the Hindus, the Vedas, are variously interpreted past the six traditional Hindu philosophical schools. Even within a unmarried school, philosophers disagree on the import of Vedic statements. (...) Hindu intellectual traditions must be understood as standing for the collection of philosophical views that share a textual connectedness. There is no single, comprehensive philosophical doctrine shared by all intellectual traditions in Hinduism that distinguishes their view from other Indian religions such every bit Buddhism or Jainism on issues of epistemology, metaphysics, logic, ethics or cosmology. The Vedas are regarded equally Apauruseya, but by the same token, they are non the Discussion of God either.[v]
  2. ^ Elisa Freschi (2012): The Vedas are non deontic authorities in accented sense and may exist disobeyed, but are recognized as an epistemic authority by an orthodox school of Hindu philosophy;[6] (Note: This differentiation between epistemic and deontic authorization is true for all Indian religions)
  3. ^ For an overview of the 6 orthodox schools, with detail on the grouping of schools, see: Radhakrishnan and Moore, "Contents", and pp. 453–487.

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Bibliography [edit]

  • Chatterjee, Satischandra; Datta, Dhirendramohan (1984). An Introduction to Indian Philosophy (Eighth Reprint ed.). Calcutta: University of Calcutta.
  • Dyczkowski, Marker S. G. (1987). The Doctrine of Vibration: An Analysis of the Doctrines and Practices of Kashmir Shaivism. Albany, New York: State Academy of New York Press. ISBN0-88706-432-9.
  • Guttorm Fløistad (28 Feb 1993). Philosophie asiatique/Asian philosophy. Springer Netherlands. ISBN978-0-7923-1762-three.
  • Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism . Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-43878-0.
  • Inundation, Gavin, ed. (2003). The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. ISBN1-4051-3251-5.
  • Alluvion, Gavin (2005). The Tantric Body: The Secret Tradition of Hindu Religion. I. B. Tauris. ISBN1845110110.
  • Grimes, John A. (1989). A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English. SUNY Press. ISBN978-0-7914-0100-2.
  • King, Richard (2007), Indian Philosophy. An Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist Thought, Georgetown University Printing
  • Lochtefeld, James Grand. (2002). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N-Z . The Rosen Publishing Grouping. ISBN978-0-8239-3180-4.
  • Mādhava Āchārya (1882). The Sarva-Darśana-Saṃgraha or Review of the Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy. Trübner'southward Oriental Serial. Translated by E.B. Cowell and A.E. Gough. London: Trübner & Co.
  • Müeller, Max (1899). Six Systems of Indian Philosophy; Samkhya and Yoga, Naya and Vaiseshika. Calcutta: Susil Gupta (Republic of india) Ltd. ISBN0-7661-4296-5. Reprint edition; Originally published nether the title of The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy.
  • Nicholson, Andrew J. (2010), Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History, Columbia University Printing
  • Perrett, Roy W. (2000). Philosophy of Organized religion. Taylor & Francis. ISBN978-0-8153-3611-2.
  • Potter, Karl H. (1991). Presuppositions of India'due south Philosophies . Motilal Banarsidass. p. 98. ISBN978-81-208-0779-2.
  • Radhakrishnan, S.; Moore, CA (1967). A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy. Princeton. ISBN0-691-01958-4.

Further reading [edit]

  • Dasgupta, Surendranath (1922–1955). A History of Indian Philosophy. Vol. 1–v. London: Cambridge University Press. Vol. 1 | Vol. two | Vol. iii | Vol. four | Vol. v.
  • Potter, Karl H., ed. (1970–2019). Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophers. Vol. 1–25-. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Ongoing monographic series project. {{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
  • Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli (1923–1927). Indian Philosophy. Vol. two-volume Fix. Oxford Academy Press.
  • Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli; and Moore, Charles A. A Source Book in Indian Philosophy. Princeton University Press; 1957. Princeton paperback twelfth edition, 1989. ISBN 0-691-01958-4.
  • Rambachan, Anantanand. "The Advaita Worldview: God, World and Humanity." 2006.
  • Zilberman, David B., The Birth of Pregnant in Hindu Thought. D. Reidel Publishing Company, Dordrecht, The netherlands, 1988. ISBN 90-277-2497-0. Chapter ane. "Hindu Systems of Thought as Epistemic Disciplines".

External links [edit]

  • Media related to Hindu philosophy at Wikimedia Commons

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_philosophy

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